Sunday, January 26, 2020
Series Pass Voltage Regulator From Discrete Electronic Engineering Essay
Series Pass Voltage Regulator From Discrete Electronic Engineering Essay The objective of this project was to construct and design a 9V  ± 0.3V, 1A series pass voltage regulator from discrete electronic parts. The voltage regulator must exhibit a voltage regulation of 5% or better and should be supplied with a dc input voltage. The regulator circuit was required to include a way to disconnect the load from the regulator if the load current exceeded 1A or if the temperature of the series pass element exceeded 40 °C. It was necessary to measure each parameter of the circuit and convert it from an analog to a digital signal. This signal would provide data necessary to display the values on the Spartan III FPGA Development Board. The numerical display was not to have any zeros leading a number, unless it affected the value. Also, the display was to be cyclic, alternating at 5 second intervals. The circuit was designed, built and tested. It produced 9.03V output and 1.02A through a 9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ load. The cut-off protection worked as well as the variable sensing circuitry. The linkage of the analog and the digital components, however, remain incomplete. Contents LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS Symbol Description ADC Analog to Digital Converter Op-amp Operational Amplifier V Voltage/Volts I Current R Resistance A Ampere à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ Ohm  °C Degree Celsius F Farad IC Collector Current IB Base Current VBE Base-Emitter Voltage LUT Look Up Table BCD Binary Coded Decimal MUX Multiplexer CLK Clock DPDT Double Pole Double Throw FPGA Field Programmable Gate Array Table : List of Abbreviations Contained in this Report INTRODUCTION Commercial power is usually distributed with an AC supply. An unregulated voltage such as this could cause damage to many household appliances and electronic devices. Therefore it is a safety hazard. A voltage regulator is a device that maintains a relatively constant output voltage for a varied input voltage. It functions by comparing the output voltage to a fixed reference and minimizing this difference with a negative feedback loop. The aim of this project to design a series pass voltage regulator with an output of 9  ± 0.3V and regulation of at least 5%. It should be able to disconnect the load from the regulator for temperatures exceeding 40à ¢Ã‚  °C and a current greater than 1A. Using A/D converters, these values (output regulator voltage and current, temperature of the series pass transistor) were converted to digital format and displayed on the Spartan III FPGA Development Board. Each value received from the analog component should be displayed with no unnecessary leading zeroes. The display had to alternate between different variables of voltage, current and temperature. The Digital Component of this project was designed in Xilinx ISE 7.1i, and the necessary tests were carried out. A User Constraints file was created, which allowed for the programming of the FPGA Board. BACKGROUND THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW Using an unregulated power supply is unfeasible for most tasks. This is because as the load current increases, the ripple voltage increases and the DC output voltage decreases. The voltage regulator greatly reduces ripple and produces a steady output voltage for a range of input voltages. Different types of voltage regulators have different functions. There are two main types, shunt and series voltage regulators. Shunt Voltage Regulator For a shunt voltage regulator, the regulating device is placed in parallel with the load. A resistor is placed in series with the load and the unregulated supply. The current is varied through the control element depending on the load current. This causes a voltage drop across the resistor in series, maintaining a constant load voltage. (Prof. Gift, 2012) Figure : Shunt Voltage Regulator Shunt Voltage Regulator Example: Zener Diode Regulator Figure : Zener Diode Voltage Regulator The zener diode is a semi-conductor diode designed to operate in the reverse-biased region. In forward bias, it functions as a normal diode but when in reverse bias, it breaks down for voltages exceeding the breakdown voltage, or zener voltage. For operation in this region a current Iz is required where the limits being the minimum and maximum current for the diode to operate without breaking down. (Prof. Gift, 2012) Series Voltage Regulator For a series voltage regulator, the regulating device is placed in series with the load and the unregulated supply. (Prof. Gift, 2012) The output voltage is sampled by a circuit that provides a feedback voltage to be compared to a reference voltage. If the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the series control element to decrease the amount of the output voltage, thereby maintaining the output voltage. If the output voltage decreases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the series control element to increase the amount of the output voltage. (Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory 7th Ed.) Figure : Series Voltage Regulator There are different circuit topologies for the series voltage regulator. These will be examined next. Simple Series Transistor Regulator To improve the current capacity of the zener diode regulator, a transistor is used in the emitter follower configuration. This acts as the series control element. The collector is supplied by the regulated voltage. The transistor reduces the load current capacity of the zener by a factor of the transistor current gain. The zener voltage is therefore produced at the emitter. The equation IC = ÃŽÂ ²IB is used to link the collector current and the base current. Due to high current gain, even very large changes in IC result in only small changes in IB. This means IZ is mostly stable. The input voltage must be greater than the diode voltage to ensued proper transistor bias. (Prof. Gift, 2012) Figure : Simple Series Transistor Voltage Regulator IZ current through the zener diode IC collector current IB base current Discrete Voltage Regulator A transistor Tr2 is connected as the series pass transistor and another one Tr1 acts as the error amplifier. In the single transistor regulator output ripple voltage is low, but the output voltage still varies. This is due to the VBE/IC characteristic of the transistor. Feedback is used to correct the output. This amplifier compares the sampled voltage with a reference voltage in order to generate a signal proportional to the difference. This is used to drive the series pass element, which then varies the output voltage such that the error is reduced and the output voltage regulated. Figure : Discrete Transistor Voltage Regulator The voltage across the series element is (Vin Vout). The input voltage to the error amplifier is ÃŽÂ ²Vout Vref, where . The output voltage across the series element is an amplified version of the input voltage, . If Vref is constant, . This is the stability factor. This means that the ripple voltage is reduced by a factor of . The higher the loop gain, AÃŽÂ ², the better the regulator performance. A is gain of error amplifier. The resistor R can be connected to the regulated side of the circuit to improve the design and decrease ripple voltage. Also, a capacitor may be placed in parallel to the Zener diode. Another capacitor can be placed across the output removing output noise and input impedance at high frequencies. A Darlington Pair may be used as the series element. This has two transistors in a single package. The Darlington Pair increases the current gain of the series element, making it able to supply a larger load current if required. (Prof. Gift, 2012) Operational Amplifier Series Voltage Regulator In order to improve the regulator performance, the loop gain A is increased. A simple method of doing this is to replace the transistor error amplifier with an operational amplifier as shown in figure 6. The operational amplifier compares the reference voltage of the zener with the feedback voltage sampled by resistors R1 and R2. The Darlington Pair design is used here and R3 connected to the regulated supply to reduce the ripple voltage. The operational amplifier (op amp) must be supplied by the unregulated input voltage. (Prof. Gift, 2012) Figure : Operational Amplifier Series Voltage Regulator STANDARDS Certain standards were considered in the undertaking of this project. These are: ISO 9001:1994 Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Production, Installation and Servicing (http://www.ttbs.org.tt/) TTS 620 2008 Occupational Safety and Health Risk Assessment Requirements(http://www.ttbs.org.tt/) BS QC 790304:1994 Specification for harmonized system of quality assessment for electronic components. (http://www.standardsuk.com) RISK ASSESSMENT Possible Hazards: 15V supply voltage. Risk of electrical shock, burns and death. Solder fumes present. Dangerous if inhaled. The heat generated by the power resistor could cause burns. The tip of the soldering gets very hot and could cause severe burns or start a fire. Clipping wires and leads may cause them to be projected into eyes and face. Steps Taken to Avoid Risk: Ensured that student was properly grounded. Proper clothing and footwear were worn. No long hanging jewellery or hair. Before energising a circuit, it was checked by a technician. Tested conductors before handling them. Exhaust fan present in lab. Regularly stepped outside for fresh air. Clipped wires away from face of anyone present. DESIGN APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY Project Requirements: Design and build a 9V  ± 0.3V, 1A Series Pass Voltage Regulator using discrete electronic components. Regulator must have a voltage regulation or 5% or better and must be fed by a dc input voltage from a laboratory power supply. In addition, the regulator must incorporate temperature and over current sensing circuits which would disconnect the load from the regulator, for temperatures and currents exceeding 40 degrees centigrade and 1 A respectively. The output regulator voltage and current, together with the temperature of the series pass transistor must be converted to digital format using A/D converters and displayed on the Spartan 111 FPGA Development Board when selected. The following specifications must be met for the display of the variables: 1. The units of all variables are to be displayed along with the respective reading. 2. The voltage is to be displayed to 1 decimal point. 3. The current is to be displayed to 2 decimal points. 4. The temperature is to be displayed as a whole number. 5. The display of the readings for voltage, current and temperature are to automatically appear in a cyclic manner, with each reading being displayed for 5 seconds. 6. All leading zeros are to be suppressed. (ECNG 2004 Design Project Description) This design had both an analog and a digital component. ANALOG COMPONENT This component involved the design and construction of the Series Pass Voltage Regulator and the sensing circuitry to detect current, voltage and temperature. These sensors were constructed to relay the values necessary for the digital component. Analog to Digital Converters were designed to convert the analog output from the current, voltage and temperature sensing circuits to digital format so as to be to be read by the Spartan FPGA Board. Design of the Operational Amplifier Series Voltage Regulator Figure : Circuit Diagram of the Operational Amplifier Series Voltage Regulator The regulator was powered by a DC input voltage from a laboratory power supply. The voltage used in the design process for the purpose of calculation was 15 volts. Choosing the Zener Voltage and Zener Current The Zener Voltage, Vz was supplied by the Zener Diode, D1 as shown in Figure 7 above. The Zener Voltage was used as a reference voltage by the Operational Amplifier. The op amp is functioning as a differential amplifier in this situation. The difference between the inputs at the inverting and non-inverting terminals is amplified. Gain, The output voltage, VZ zener voltage Vz should be high enough so that gain would not decrease to achieve the required output. If Vz was too high, i.e. the output voltage, no current would flow through D1. An appropriate value between 0V and 9V was chosen, VZ = 4.8V. The IN4732 Zener Diode was chosen and the specification sheet for this model was obtained. The specified test current was 53mA, and the chosen value was 40mA. This was chosen to ensure proper bias. Calculating Resistor R3 The resistor R3 was in series with the Zener Diode. Therefore, the current through them is the same. A 100 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistor was chosen as it was the closest one in value available in stores. R3 = 100à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ Calculating Resistors R1 and R2 Resistors R1 and R2 formed a potential divider providing the inverting input of the op amp. This sampled the output and sent it to the error amplifier. If the value of the output changed from the designed, the voltage drop across the resistors would change and the op amp input voltage would change, producing an error voltage at the output of the op amp. This error voltage will either turn on more or turn off more Transistor Tr1 and effectively Tr2 as well. The output voltage, Vo is related to the Zener Voltage by the equation below. Substituting Vo = 9V and Vz = 4.8V, Therefore, If R2 chosen to be 10kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦, then Therefore, R1 = 8.8kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ and R2 = 10kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦. Choosing an Operational Amplifier The LF351 op-amp was chosen for this design. It only needed to function as a differential amplifier. Choosing the Series Pass Transistor The required output current was 1 Ampere. Therefore the maximum collector current of the series pass transistor had to be greater than 1 A. high power transistor was needed, but the current gain of power amplifiers is low (approximately 40). The base current and collector current for a transistor are related by the following expression. Substituting Current gain, hfe = 40 and Ic = 1 A, The LF351 op amp could not supply this base current. A Darlington Pair arrangement was used instead. Darlington Pairs have high current gain. The high power transistor chosen was TIP31C, packaged in a TO-220 Case. The current gain, hfe1 of this transistor was specified to be between 10 and 50, so a value of 30 was used. An NPN medium power transistor, BFY51 in a TO-39 metal package, was chosen for Tr2 in Figure 6. The current gain, hfe2 was found to be 123. Hence, total current gain of the Darlington Pair: hfe1 ÃÆ'- hfe2, i.e. 30 ÃÆ'- 123 = 3690. Substituting Current gain, hfetotal = 3690 and Ic = 1 A, Design of the Voltage Sensing Circuit The purpose of the Voltage Sensing Circuit was to determine the output voltage of the regulator and relay this voltage to the Analog to Digital Converter input. The Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) chip (ADC08040 IC) had a reference voltage of 4.5V. The maximum voltage possible was 9.5V. Hence if the voltage output was 9.5V, the ADC08040 input voltage should be 4.5V. VO had to be stepped down by a potential divider before it could be sent to the ADC08040. It was stepped down by a factor of . Let R1 = 1kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦, then R2 = 1kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ This voltage was sent to a Unity Gain Voltage Follower (Figure 8) and was input to the ADC circuit. (Prof. Gift, 2012) Voltage Sensor.bmp Figure : Voltage Sensing Circuit Design of the Current Protection Circuit The purpose of this was to disconnect the load from the regulator when the current flowing through the load surpassed 1A. The protection circuit monitored the load current and sent a signal to a device to disconnect the load, when the current rose to over 1A. A 1à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ shunt was used in series with the 9à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ load resistor. The shunt voltage was used to determine cut-off. An instrumentation amplifier was chosen (INA114AP) to compare the temperature sensor voltage and a potential divider voltage. The shunt voltage was amplified to increase chances of accurate determination of when to disconnect the load. A potential divider was constructed to deliver a4V, and the shunt voltage was also amplified to 4V. Potential Divider: Which gives: Let R1 = 20kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ The voltage from the shunt was amplified to 4V as well, and this was done by an op-amp and two resistors set up in the non-inverting amplification configuration shown below. The reference used to be amplified was 0.9V from the shunt, as this was the value which, if exceeded, cut-off and disconnection of the load was supposed to occur. For an non inverting amplifier, Vo = 4V, Vi = 0.4V, And Let R1 = 2.4kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦, R2 = 8.2kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ .Temperature Amp Input to INA.bmp Figure : Circuit for Comparison and Determination of Cut-off When both inputs have the same voltage across them, the instrumentation amplifier would have an output of zero. The transistor in Figure 10 would be turned off and the base would be at 0V. The transistor used was a 2N3904 (Ic = 200mA). If the output is non-zero, the base would be driven by a voltage and the transistor will be ON. When the output is zero (same inputs) the transistor would be OFF and the relay coil would be grounded through the transistor. Current would flow through the coil, producing a magnetic field, and the relay would latch. When the instrumentation amp inputs are different, the output would saturate at +Vcc, i.e. 9V. The coil would an equal voltage at either end and so would have no voltage drop across it, meaning no current flowing through it. The relay is effectively OFF. There is a Normally Open (N.O.) Switch between pins 2 3, and 7 5 of the relay as well as Normally Closed (N.C.) Switches across pins 2 3 and 7 6. The N.O. switches close and the N.C. switches open when the relay latches. The load was connected across the N.C. pins. When the instrumentation amp has the same inputs, (zero output), and there is a voltage drop across the coil, current flows and the relay latches, disconnecting the load from the circuit. The relay had a rated voltage of 6V and the coil had a measured resistance of 70.5à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦. The relays, however, were actually found to latch at a voltage of 3.2V. Therefore for calculation purposes 3.5V is used = 49.6mA was needed to latch the relay. A potential divider was used to provide the required voltage for the relay. For a resistor R3, This caused a voltage drop across the coil, larger enough to activate the coil when necessary. The voltage across resistor R3 is given by, For Ic = 49.6mA, The Base Current of the transistor is given by For Ic = 49.6mA, and hfe = 100, To bias the base of the transistor for the 9V output of the op-amp, A 16kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistor was used. This would change VBE of the transistor. The new VBE was well within the operating range required for the resistor. Temperature Cutoff.bmp Figure : Current Protection Circuit Design of the Current Sensing Circuit The Current Sensing Circuit determined the voltage regulator output load. This value of current would be received by the ADC input. The ADC chip (ADC08040 IC ) was 4.5V. The Current LUT could convert a maximum of 1.29A. This means when the regulator reaches 1.29A, the ADC will be at 4.5V. A 1à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ shunt resistor was placed in series with the load. The 9V regulated output would now be applied to a combined load of 10à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦. Voltage drop across the shunt: Therefore: The output voltage across the shunt is 0.9V. This will correspond with the maximum voltage which will give all 1s at the ADC output. Thus the voltage must be stepped up using a non-inverting op-amp. The voltage of 0.9V was stepped up to 4.5V. This means the gain is = 5 Let R1 = 2k à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦. Therefore, R2 = 8kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ The potential divider voltage was passed through the amplifier and then input into the ADC. Current Sensing Circuit.bmp Figure : Current Sensing Circuit Design of the Temperature Protection Circuit This disconnects the load from the regulator when the temperature of the Power Transistor (TIP31C) reached 40 °C. The Power Transistor temperature was monitored and at 40 °C, a signal would be sent from the circuit to a device, disconnecting the load. The LM35DZ was chosen. Its sensitivity was 10mV/ °C. At 40 °C, the temperature sensor output would be 0.4V. An instrumentation amplifier (INA114AP) was chosen to compare the temperature sensor voltage and the potential divider voltage. For a more accurate determination of the load, the temperature sensor output voltage was amplified. The potential divider delivered a voltage of 4V, and the sensor output voltage was also amplified to 4V. Therefore: Let R1 = 20kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ An op amp and two resistors were used to build a non-inverting amplifier in order to set the temperature sensor voltage to 4V. The reference voltage was 0.4V, since it is at this point cut-off should take place. For a non-inverting amplifier: , , Let R1=1kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ and R2=9kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦, Temperature Amp Input to INA.bmp Figure : Amplifier Circuit for Comparison and Determination of Cut-off . When both input voltages are the same, the amplifier output would be 0V, turning off the transistor. (No VBE present). A 2N3904 transistor was used (Ic = 200mA), so the current would be large enough to latch the relay. If the amplifier output is not 0V, there would be a voltage drop across the base and the transistor would be ON. When the amplifier output is 0V, the transistor would be OFF, grounding the relay, causing current flow in the coil, latching the relay. When the amplifier inputs are at different levels, the output saturates at +Vcc = 9V. Equal voltages exist at both ends of the coil, so no current flows hence the relay is OFF. A Normally Open (N.O.) Switch exists across pins 2 3, and 7 5 of the relay. Normally Closed (N.C.) Switches exist across pins 2 3 and 7 6. The N.O. switches close and the N.C. switches open upon latching. Consider this load connected across the N.C pins and the amplifier has equal inputs. The amplifier output is 0V, causing a voltage drop across the relay coil, causing current flow and latching of the relay. It follows then that the load is disconnected from the circuit. For a resistor R3, R3 was used to activate the coil by creating a voltage drop across it. For Ic = 49.6mA, For biasing, A 16kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ resistor was used instead. Temperature Cutoff.bmp Figure : Temperature Protection Circuit This circuit was designed to relay the temperature of the power (TIP31C) to the ADC input. The ADC chip (ADC08040 IC ) reference voltage was 4.5V. The Temperature LUT could convert up to 129à ¢Ã‚  °C. At this temperature, the ADC should be 4.5V. A Temperature Sensor (LM35DZ) in a TO-92 package used to determine the temperature. This had a sensitivity of 10mV/ °C. At 129 °C, VO = 1.29V. Sensor output voltage was stepped up using a non-inverting op amp by a factor of , Let R1 = 1k à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦. R2 = 2.49kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‹â€ 2.5kà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¦ The sensor voltage was amplified and input into the ADC. Temperature Sensing Circuit.bmp Figure : Temperature Sensing Circuit A copper strip board was used to build the voltage regulator circuit since the solderless breadboard could only take up to 0.5A. Inputs: Voltage Supply of 15V Outputs: Voltage Sensing Output OV Ground Regulated 9V Output Temperature Sensing Voltage A voltage follower was used to buffer the output. The circuit was constructed as seen in figure 15: Figure : Complete Sensing and Cut-off Circuit DESIGN OF THE ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERSION CIRCUIT An 8 bit representation was used with reference to the 4.5V signal. The analog signal was converted to a digital signal from the 3 sensing circuits using the schematic shown below. Analog to digital conversion was done using the. A resistor pack was used to provide over current protection. This circuit was built and tested for each of the three sensing circuits. A combination of LEDs was used for the input of the analog voltage. AD Converter Circuit.bmp Figure : Schematic for ADC control configuration Op amps were used to buffer the inputs. The outputs were mapped onto the respective pins of the 40-pin IDE cable used to interface with the Spartan III Board. Figure : 40 Pin Expansion Connector (Spartan III Toolkit Datasheet) Data was transmitted using these pins to the ADC. DIGITAL COMPONENT The FPGA board was programmed so as to use the Seven Segment Display. Xilinx ISE 7.1i was used to design and construct the display for all the variables. Design of the Basic Display Unit Multiplexers, Frequency Dividers, a Look up Table Device and a Binary Coded Decimal to 7-Segment Converter were used to create the Display Unit. The 16-bit 31 Multiplexer Multiplexers may have more than one input but usually have one output. A combination of numbers is assigned to each input pin. Using these combinations, the respective input data is sent to the output pin. Therefore the bits that are chosen which input data set to display. In this design, two multiplexers were used, a 4-bit 41 and a 16-bit 31 multiplexer. 31 means 3 data inputs, 16- bit means each input is of 16 bit capacity. 16bit3to1muxschem.bmp Figure : Schematic Diagram of a 16-bit 3 to 1-line Multiplexer The 4-bit 41 Multiplexer The 4-bit 41 multiplexer can handle up to four combinations of inputs. To select which input is displayed, two bits are necessary. The output was a bus of width 4 bits. It split the 16 bit output into four sets of 4 bits. The 4-bit 41 multiplexer is shown in figure 19. 4bit4to1mux.bmp Figure : Schematic Diagram of a 4-bit 4 to 1-line Multiplexer Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) to 7-Segment Display Unit The BCD unit accepts four bits of data, e.g. D3D2D1D0, and determines which segments of the 7-segment display to turn on and off so as to represent the value of the input data. Figure 20 shows a 7-segment display. This type of display is common in electronic equipment e.g. calculators, microwaves, digital clocks. The Minimum Expressions for the BCD are: Seg_a = D3D2D1D0 + D2D1D0 + D3D2 + D3D1 Seg_b = D2D1D0 + D2D1D0 + D3D2 + D3D1 Seg_c = D2D1D0 + D3D2 + D3D1 Seg_d = D2D1D0 + D2D1D0 + D2D1D0 + D3D1 + D3D2 Seg_e = D0 + D2D1 + D3D1 Seg_f = D3D2 + D2D1 + D1D0 + D3D2D0 Seg_g = D3D2 + D3D1 + D2D1D0 + D3D2D1 For each expression, logic gate circuits were created. Each segment was then used to build the final BCD to 7-Segment Converter. The combinations of segments that would form the values were organised. The Look-Up-Table (LUT) This was used to determine which display unit anodes were to be turned on and off. There were four individual 7-segment displays. Each one had its own anode and as such could be controlled by choosing the anode of the respective display. lut.bmp Figure : Schematic Diagram of a Look-Up-Table (LUT) Modulo 4 Counter The Modulo 4 counter was used to perform automatic cycling of the anodes to be displayed. Only one anode was on at a time for each different combination. Moduloo4counter.bmp Figure : Schematic Diagram of a Modulo 4 Counter For multiplexed displays, the entire display is not lit up as the same time. The characters are made up of segments which, under certain conditions, become active. Each character is displayed one at a time. Switching of characters takes place so fast it appears that all the displays are on at the same time. The speed of switching is called the frequency divider (in this case 1kHz). This activates the modulo 4 counter which causes the LUT to choose one of four inputs to be chosen from the 4-bit 4 to 1 multiplexer to send to the 7 segment display. The Combined Display Unit Data Unit.bmp Figure :Schematic Diagram of the Display Unit Upgrade of the Display Unit to display the Decimal Point The LUT controls the switching of the anodes on the four 7 segment displays. Each 7 Segment Display has a decimal point that can be turned on or off if necessary. This was necessary in this project when displaying voltage and current. For a voltage, the decimal point is on the 3rd anode, a2. 0 9. 0 V For a current, the decimal point is on the 4th anode, a3. 0. 9 9 A This means that the point will only be on when S0 and S1 select to display voltage or current, and when the third or fourth anodes are on respectively. The Essential Prime Implicants were chosen from a truth table and the minimized expression was produced as follows: The Logic Gate circuit was constructed as shown below and implemented in Xilinx ISE 7.1i. A Macro was then created and connected appropriately in the Updated Display Unit Schematic. Decimal Point Upgrade.bmp Figure : Logic Gate Circuit for Decimal Point Upgrade Upgrade of the Display Unit to display the Units for each Variable The Display Unit was upgraded a second time in order to allow the units of each parameter to show Parameter Unit Symbol for Unit Voltage Volts V Current Amperes A Temperature Degrees Celsius à ¢Ã‚  °C Table : Parameters to be Displayed and their Respective Units The BCD Converter had to be updated to ensure when certain select bits were chosen, the segments would align to form the unit symbol on the first anode. Since there are four select inputs, D3D2D1D0 , there are 16 possible combinations of these bits forming different outputs. 0000 to 1001 in binary form represents 0 to 9 in decimal form. This means that there are combinations 1010 to 1111 to choose from to display a unit. 1101 was chosen for voltage, 1110 for current and 1111 for temperature. Figure : Common
Saturday, January 18, 2020
Discussing Hamlets speach with Polonius Essay
â€Å"Farewell, Ophelia, and remember well What I have said to you. †Line 88,Act 1 Sc 111. â€Å"Tis in my memory locked, And you yourself shall the keep the key of it. Line 90 Act 1 Sc 11. These were the last words Laertes and Ophelia exchanged before he left to France. It is when Polonius hears these words that he asks Ophelia what Laertes meant when he said, â€Å"Remember well What I have said to you†. Ophelia then tells her father that it was about her relationship with Hamlet. Polonius then questions Ophelia about this so-called relationship. Which then brings me to speech Polonius and Ophelia have Act 1 Scene 3 Lines 122-143 which I have based my essay own. I will go in depth and explain different characteristics of this speech. This whole speech between Polonius and Ophelia, though Polonius does most of the talking. I think it would be fairly accurate to say that he is actually lecturing Ophelia. Polonius is telling Ophelia that Hamlet is no good and also telling Ophelia that she shouldn’t give in to Hamlet so easily. Polonius in this speech also reveals to the reader what his true feelings of Hamlet are. From this speech we can imply that Polonius is very concerned about Ophelia’s relationship with Hamlet. Shakespeare uses Metaphors, Similes, Alteration, and Personifications in Polonius’speech s to stress Hamlet’s faults and Ophelia’s personality as well. The speech becomes more alive because of these devices. I will show exactly how these devices construct Polonius’s speech. It is obvious that Polonius is concerned about his daughter’s relationship with Hamlet this is shown throughout the speech in various ways. The speech also shows Polonius strongly disapproves of Hamlet he does this by criticizing every aspect of Hamlet. We can see this by looking at Polonius’s speech for example when Polonius says†When the blood burns, how prodigal the soul†Act1, Sc3, Lines125, Polonius is saying that when Hamlet has a sudden churning for a women’s company that is when he goes to Ophelia. There is an alliteration here â€Å"blood burns†this put emphasis on these two words. â€Å"When the blood burns†is also a metaphor because we all now blood doesn’t burn, these two devices make Hamlet seem like a monster. It seems as if Hamlet is only using Ophelia for his own selfish reasons. Then Polonius continues to say â€Å"how prodigal the soul Lends the tongue vows†Act1, Sc3, Lines123-124 Polonius here is saying that when Hamlet has a sudden churning his soul lends his tongue vows or promises. We can see the personification here because Shakespeare’s writes as if soul is a person and can actually lend the tongue vows. This personification shows the reader exactly how fake Hamlet is. Then Polonius says â€Å"These blazes, daughter, Giving more light than heat, extinct in both†Act1, Sc3, Lines124-125, Polonius is saying that the blazes contain light and heat but they die out soon after. Polonius is saying just like light and heat die out and so will Hamlet’s promises. This shows the reader that Hamlet is not going to keep his promises that soon they will be broken. Polonius again uses personification to show us exactly what he think of Hamlet’s promises in this quote â€Å"Do not believe his vows for they are brokers,†Act1, Sc3, Lines134-135, Polonius is talking about Hamlet’s vows as if they were alive and they could actually break promises. This shows Hamlet’s promises aren’t worth anything. Polonius goes on to say that Hamlet is a fake in this next quote â€Å"Not of that dye which their investments shows†Act1, Sc3, Lines135, Polonius is saying that Hamlet is not the way his clothing or covering make him look. In this line Hamlet may be seen as an imposter or a hypocrite. In this next quote Polonius show us exactly what kind of person Hamlet is â€Å"Breathing like sanctified and pious bawds,†Act1, Sc3, Lines 137 this metaphor means Hamlet is acting like a humble person so he can hide his obscene, vulgar personality. In other words Hamlet acts like someone else so he can hide his true self. At this point the reader can speculate from Polonius’s speech that Hamlet is a rather nasty character or that Polonius has some hidden issues against Hamlet and that is why he is intent on giving Hamlet a bad name. Throughout the speech Polonius doesn’t give any reason as to why he feels this way towards Hamlet. In the previous paragraph I showed you how Polonius used comparisons and other literary devices to show his disapproval towards Hamlet. In this paragraph I will show you how Polonius makes Ophelia seem feeble and vulnerable. In the first line â€Å"Ay springes to catch woodcocks! I do know†Act1, Sc3, Lines122 Polonius compares Ophelia to woodcocks, which are known to be witless and easily trapped. Polonius is saying that Ophelia is easily trapped by Hamlet words, gifts etc. The reader might think of Ophelia as a little vulnerable girl who can be easily fooled. Polonius then accuses Ophelia of not being able stand up for herself and saying no to Hamlet, in this next quote â€Å"Set your entreatments at a higher rate. Than a command to parley. â€Å"Act1, Sc2, Lines129 Polonius is saying don’t automatically give in to Hamlet’s every request, have some self-respect and dignity. The reader may think that Ophelia can’t really say no when it comes to Hamlet. Then Polonius wraps up his speech by saying â€Å"I would not in plain terms from this time forth Have you slander any moment leisure As to give words or talk with Lord Hamlet. Look to’t, I charge you. †Act 1,Sc3, Lines138-142Polonius is ending his speech by telling Ophelia that she better not from this time on spend time or even talk with Hamlet anymore. Ophelia answers by saying â€Å"I shall obey, my Lord. â€Å"Act1, Sc3, Lines143 Ophelia doesn’t complain to her father this shows a certain amount of feebleness on Ophelia’s side. The reader can obviously assume that Ophelia is a vulnerable, feeble and a nai ve girl in here nature. The overall effect of Polonius’s speech is concern for his daughter and disapproval towards Hamlet. Polonius is trying to protect Ophelia from getting hurt by Hamlet, which whom he doesn’t particularly like. This makes Polonius seem like an overprotective father. The essence of Polonius’s speech is the concern mixed with extreme dislike toward Hamlet. He uses Metaphors, Similes, Alliteration and Personification this makes Polonius’s speech become more appealing. Polonius compares Hamlet to many things and says a lot about what Hamlet is and is not. Polonius does it so much that the audience is feels that the Polonius could have is own secret issues with Hamlet. The audience is hearing a lot of criticism directed at Hamlet and the audience might start to think that Polonius’s has other reasons for disapproving of Hamlet. This could mean that all the things said about Hamlet may not be true. How does the speech affect the rest of the play? This speech affects the rest of the play in the sense that Polonius’s disapproval of Hamlet causes for Ophelia to tell Hamlet that their relationship is over and Hamlet is not very pleased by this. After this episode when Hamlet starts acting weird, even a little mad. Polonius automatically suggests it is because Ophelia has dumped Hamlet, and therefore convinces Claudius and Gertrude that is what is causing Hamlet’s madness. Even though there is not direct evidence that implies Ophelia is the cause of Hamlet’s madness, in fact the reader know this is not even the reason for Hamlet’s madness further more Hamlet is not even mad. Polonius is simply playing devil’s advocate. I think Polonius’s extreme dislike of Hamlet that is revealed throughout the speech has affected the play in a number of ways.
Friday, January 10, 2020
The disturbance in the core’s natural motion causes the Earth
The plot of the 2003 movie â€Å"The Core†is centered on the apparent ceasing of the core’s rotation and the ensuing catastrophes that threaten to obliterate life on earth within a year’s time.The disturbance in the core’s natural motion causes the Earth’s magnetic field to falter, and consequently leads to a myriad of disasters that escalate in intensity and gravity over time. To avert the threat of annihilation, a team of â€Å"terranauts†was organized to travel into the Earth’s core to set off nuclear bombs that will restart its rotation.For obvious reasons â€Å"The Core†falls under the science fiction genre, but as with any typical sci-fi movie, a scrutiny of the movie should reveal just how much of its â€Å"science†is factual and how much is made-up.To resolve the predicament of the stalled core, the terranauts are to drill into the earth’s interior and are to set off nuclear bombs in the inner core to g et it rotating again. For argument’s sake we shall assume that it may indeed be possible to build a vehicle capable of traveling and withstanding the tremendous heat and pressure in the Earth’s interior, and that a nuclear bomb strong enough for the purpose exists.The question will then be whether the shock waves that will be generated by the nuclear bombs be able to jumpstart the core into rotating again.For this to happen, a torque, or a twisting force, needs to be applied to the core to start it spinning. Specifically, the direction of the force should be tangential to the core (â€Å"The Core (2003)†, par. 20), the same way that you would try to make a globe spin by applying force along a tangent in its surface.Contrary to what was shown in Zimky’s simulation in the movie, the shock waves from the explosion will doubtfully have any net effect when it hits the core (â€Å"The Core (2003)†, par. 20) since the waves will radiate out of the point o f explosion in all directions and will hit the core head-on.Even as the waves radiate further out and be propagated tangentially to the core, they would be propagated equally on opposing sides and will therefore cancel each other out.Another questionable observation about the simulation is that the waves seemed to be simply reflected by the outer core-mantle boundary so that it rebounds within the outer core. The bomb explosions are a form of induced seismic activity and from this vantage point, the shock waves can be discussed in terms of primary (P) and secondary (S) waves.P waves are compressional waves that travel along the direction of propagation while S waves involve the displacement of material perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling. Both waves travel through the Earth’s interior and are refracted when they pass through materials of a different composition and density (â€Å"Seismic Waves†, sec. 1.1).Considering this, the simulation appears o versimplified, if not inaccurate, since the primary waves will travel outward through the mantle and not simply bounce back inside the outer core. This would probably make the simulation for the sequential detonation of the nuclear bombs likewise inaccurate.Later on in the movie it is revealed that the reason for the core’s stalling was because of a top-secret government project named DESTINI (Deep Earth Seismic Trigger Initiative) which claims to have the ability to produce targeted seismic events anywhere on Earth by focusing high-energy electromagnetic waves down deeper fault lines.It wasn’t explained in the movie why DESTINI intends to target these deeper fault lines but assuming that it is because they intend to produce â€Å"deep focus†earthquakes that are, as of present, not yet fully understood and hence may not be as traceable in terms of their exact cause, then it doesn’t make much sense since these types of earthquakes usually are not as damag ing as â€Å"shallow focus†earthquakes (â€Å"INDEPTH†, par. 5).The latter’s focus occurs much nearer the surface and hence the seismic waves generated will be surface waves. Due to their nature, these waves are much more destructive than the P and S waves (â€Å"Seismic Waves†, sec. 1.2) that will be produced from deep focus earthquakes generated hundreds of kilometers deeper.It is also hard to imagine an instrument capable of delivering energy that is powerful enough to create stress along fault lines and in the process induce an earthquake. Even if such a device were possible, there’s still the question of how to target a specific location.DESTINI claims to be able to create earthquakes ‘anywhere’ but it is arguable that there’s a convenient fault for every conceivable target on the surface of the Earth. Even if the device were to target known active fault lines, it would be impossible to dictate the specific focus and epice nter of the resulting earthquake. It would also be shortsighted not to think that they would be running the risk of inadvertently producing earthquakes anywhere else along the fault line.In the first place, are the catastrophes depicted in the movie really possible if the core were to stop spinning? G. Glatzmaier of the Inst. of Geophysics & Planetary Physics said that â€Å"the super-rotation of the inner core is really neither a pure cause nor a pure effect of the magnetic field. The situation is much more intricate†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , so even if the core stalls it won’t automatically equate to a collapsing magnetic field. Likewise, the disasters attributed to the faltering geomagnetic field were dubious.The incident with the birds in Trafalgar Square is highly unlikely. The answer was in the movie itself – when asked how birds navigate, Keyes’ graduate student answered jokingly that it was through â€Å"eyesight†and only when Keyes asked how they navigate long-range did she reply that it was through sensing the Earth’s magnetic field. Birds do make use of the magnetic field but it is to find their way during long-distance and migratory flights, but even this is under debate (â€Å"All About Birds†).The Earth’s magnetic field does protect us from certain cosmic radiation, including solar winds but (â€Å"Solar Wind†, sec 3.3) microwave radiation is able to penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere because neither the magnetic field nor the atmosphere effectively blocks this type of radiation (â€Å"Solar Wind†, secs. 2 & 4).The Sun’s energy reaches us mostly in the form of visible light (â€Å"Solar System†, sec. 4) and though the Sun does emit microwave radiation, it won’t be in the form of an almost-visible and laser-like beam that can cut a bridge in two as depicted in the movie. Also, microwaves don’t cause severe sunburns because what causes the latter is exposure to u ltraviolet light.The movie did get some basic scientific facts right. Aside from the few already mentioned, the peach analogy is quite accurate if you compare it to a diagram of the Earth’s layers drawn to scale. The Marianas Trench is also indeed the deepest part of the Earth (â€Å"Mariana Trench†, par. 1) and would make a logical choice as the point of entry if you were to travel into the interior of the Earth.Compared to your average sci-fi film, â€Å"The Core†seems to have left most of the â€Å"science†out of its story. From a purely scientific point of view, the plot suffers from huge logical gaps in that the problem, its cause, and even the resolution to the said conflict are highly improbable, if not all together impossible. Hence, it would probably be a more accurate description to say that this fictional piece of work is likewise based mostly on science that is also bordering on fictional.References:All About Birds. 2006. Cornell Lab of Orni thology. 19 March 2007.Glatzmaier, Gary A. â€Å"I am wondering about the significance of the recent report that the earth's solid core rotates slightly faster than the earth's surface. Is this a cause or an effect of the earth's magnetic field?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Online posting. 21 Oct. 1999. Scientific American.Com Ask the Experts: Geology. 19 March 2007. Â
Thursday, January 2, 2020
David Hume, John Locke and John Rawls on Property
All the three philosophers, whose work I am going to scrutinize on, have very specific, yet in most cases common views on property. First of all, let me define what the term property means. Property, as I see it, is an object of legal rights that is possessed by an individual or a group of individuals who are directly responsible for this it. In his work Of Justice, David Hume puts great emphasis on distribution of property in society. Hume believes that only the conception of property gives society such social virtue as justice. Justice, according to Hume, is an important social virtue the sole purpose of which is public utility. To prove his point of view about how property distribution defines the existence of justice in society, David†¦show more content†¦Locke thinks the same that in such cases, the inhabitant do value the land until there is no room enough for them in that space Ââ€" problems with this sentence. Only in this case, people start, all in consent, distinguishing the property. So Locke says that one should not possess more than he can afford to possess, i.e. conveniences that will be enough for his comfort. And he says that if a person gains more, and as a consequence, some part of property perishes, then it is a crime towards others. It is very interesting that Locke says perishes or spoils. If it does not perish or spoil, then it is not a crime, as ‘the exceeding of bounds of his just property not lying in the largeness of his possession, but the perishing of any thing uselessly in it. And then comes money, being the only mean by which a person can exceed property without spoiling it. Locke thinks that only money made it possible to a person to enlarge his/her possessions without hurting others. And only existence of money make people lust for more, as it was said, it never perishes. Locke makes a reader imagine of a place, where one has a big fertile land with a lot of conveniences. It is so big that it may perish as it is more than he/she needs. If there is no chance to sell it for money, this person goes back to the common law of nature that is using of conveniences what is enough for one.Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of David Hume s Theory Of Justice2868 Words  | 12 Pagessimple concept: Property ownership. David Hume defined property as nothing but a stable possession under the mutually respected understanding of society. Basically, Man creates society to enforce justice which allows man to own and use property as he desires. A grand idea but is it so simple? If Man creates society to protect this arbitrary concept, does society have the right to take this right away? John Rawls felt that society was responsible for deciding who properly owns property, whether it sRead MoreSocial Contract As A Dominant Political Theory Essay1981 Words  | 8 Pagesmembers of society group that allows them to collaborate and promote mutual benefits, as well explains the legitimacy and authority of government. This concept is further explained and defended by 17th and 18th centuries philosophers like Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau, who helped to shape these theories and lay down the foundation for today’s democracy and the role of the government in society. Social contract theories had a profou nd impact on modern Western society, specifically, America and FranceRead MoreConcept of Freedom in Political Theory1679 Words  | 7 Pagesfreedom we find in our daily lives. Different political theorists, writing in different times, often of political turmoil, have considered freedom in many different ways. Three influential writers who took a normative approach were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. An important part of their arguments turned on their notions of a ‘state of nature’ – where natural law applied in absence of any organised political state. Hobbes (1651, cited in Brown, 2005), writing shortly afterRead MoreBranches of Philosophy8343 Words  | 34 Pagesmorality. Platos early dialogues include a search for definitions of virtue. †¢ Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals and communities to the state. It includes questions about justice, the good, law, property, and the rights and obligations of the citizen. †¢ Aesthetics deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values, perception, and matters of taste and sentiment. †¢ Logic deals with patterns of thinking that lead from true premisesRead MoreJurisprudential Theories on IPR13115 Words  | 53 Pagesthe relationship between intellectual property and human rights is a complex one,[33] there are moral arguments for intellectual property. The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)